In its common modern meaning, a mule is the offspring of a male donkey and a female horse. Compare hinny – the offspring of a male horse and a female donkey. The term "mule" (Latin mulus) was formerly applied to the offspring of any two creatures of different species – in modern usage, a "hybrid". The mule, easier to breed and usually larger in size than a hinny, has monopolised the attention of breeders. The chromosome match-up more often occurs when the jack (male donkey) is the sire and the mare (female horse) is the dam. It has been known for people to let a stallion (male horse) run with a jenny (female donkey) for as long as six years before getting her pregnant. Mules are almost always sterile (see fertile mules below for rare cases), as almost all hinnies are. (see External links). The sterility is attributed to the different number of chromosomes the two species have: donkeys have 62 chromosomes, while horses have 64. Their offspring thus have 63 chromosomes which cannot evenly divide.

A female mule, called a "molly", has estrus cycles and can carry a fetus, as has occasionally happened naturally but also through embryo transfer. The difficulty is in getting the molly pregnant in the first place.

Mules are considered more intelligent than both horses and donkeys.

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USDA Agricultural Research Service

Grain Moisture Measurements May Divert Mold, Insect Infestation
Thu, 28 Aug 2008 08:26:00 -0500
Monitoring carbon dioxide—along with the standard humidity and temperature—may help detect insect and mold problems more effectively. Photo courtesy of Microsoft Clipart. Newly renovated ARS grain research center dedicated   ARS-adapted grain sorter sees fungal poisons under "new light"   Optical sensors help farmers find high-quality wheat Grain Moisture Measurements May Divert Mold, Insect Infestation By Sharon Durham August 28, 2008 Grain storage bins are routinely monitored for temperature to control insect and mold problems. Now an Agricultural Research Service (ARS) scientist and his colleagues at Kansas State University (KSU) have preliminary research findings showing that monitoring carbon dioxide--along with humidity and temperature--also may help detect problems more effectively. Grain moisture content and temperature are the primary factors affecting grain deterioration in storage. If these factors are not properly monitored and controlled, grain quality can deteriorate quickly due to mold growth and insect infestation. ARS engineer Paul Armstrong at the agency's Grain and Marketing and Production Research Center in Manhattan, Kan., and Haidee Gonzales and Ronaldo Maghirang at KSU monitored a simulated grain storage bin during aeration to determine if high-moisture grain, or adverse storage conditions, in the bin top could be detected using sensors to measure relative humidity, temperature and carbon dioxide levels. Relative humidity and temperature can be used to estimate grain moisture, while carbon dioxide levels indicate the amount of respiration due, primarily, to molds. Current technology allows relative humidity and temperature sensors to be placed at multiple points within the grain mass. Carbon dioxide sensing is more feasible at an aeration duct. In the study, sensors were placed at different depths in the bin. High-moisture grain-- comprising about 11 percent of the volume--was placed at the top of the bin and produced high amounts of carbon dioxide, which in most cases was easily detectable during aeration. Lowering grain temperature with aeration diminished the amount of carbon dioxide produced, making it more difficult to detect unless the carbon dioxide sensor was located very close to the wet grain. Relative humidity and temperature sensing gave good estimates of grain moisture for all conditions, but under some grain conditions, high carbon dioxide levels persisted for grain considered to be at safe moisture and temperature conditions. Combining relative humidity, temperature and carbon dioxide measurements gave reasonably accurate measurements of grain moisture content as well as overall storage conditions. ARS is the U.S. Department of Agriculture's scientific research agency.
ARS Scientists Test MRI Device to Measure Body Fat in Piglets
Wed, 27 Aug 2008 08:46:00 -0500
A new device can more accurately and precisely measure total body fat, lean tissue mass, free water mass and total body water in piglets and may have future applications for human pediatric use. Click the image for more information about it. Scientists study excess fat in chickens   Pig gene database supports human nutrition, immunity studies   DXA measures meat, fat composition in pork ARS Scientists Test MRI Device to Measure Body Fat in Piglets By Sharon Durham August 27, 2008 A new magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)-based device--more advanced than the technology used today for body composition tests--can accurately and precisely measure total body fat in piglets using the principles of quantitative magnetic resonance (QMR), according to Agricultural Research Service (ARS) scientists who evaluated the new technology. The new device, called EchoMRI, was tested by ARS researchers to measure not only total body fat, but lean tissue mass, free water mass and total body water in piglets. The research was done under a grant from the National Institutes of Health, which wants to know if the new technology could have future applications for human pediatric use. Standard MRI systems are commonly used to scan and visualize tissue in humans. However, when used for body composition analysis, imaging systems are subject to substantial error rates caused by the interpretation of visual images using software that relies on population averages. EchoMRI uses a new type of QMR methodology to obtain body composition results. Its measurement principle depends on the density of hydrogen nuclei and the physical state of the tissue. ARS animal scientist Alva Mitchell at the Animal Biosciences and Biotechnology Laboratory in Beltsville, Md., tested the device, developed by Echo Medical Systems, to determine EchoMRI's precision and accuracy in piglets as compared to dual x-ray (DXA) technology and chemical analysis. Twenty-five piglets, each weighing between 3.5 pounds and 8 pounds, were screened live, anesthetized, and post-mortem, using a prototype EchoMRI device for infants. The piglets were also scanned using DXA and then subjected to chemical analysis. After DXA scans, EchoMRI screenings, and chemical analyses were completed, EchoMRI was found to be a precise and accurate method suitable for measuring piglet whole body composition, total body fat, lean tissue mass, free water mass, and total body water. While these studies were conducted on piglets, EchoMRI may be transferable to market-weight pigs. EchoMRI allows for measurements to be conducted in only a few minutes without anesthesia or sedation, is radiation-free, and does not require the subject to remain completely motionless. This facilitates convenient, low-stress repeated tracking of small changes in body composition and can be advantageous to researchers to optimize feed utilization. It could also help researchers identify high-value hogs for breeding. ARS is a scientific research agency of the U.S. Department of Agriculture.
"Fingerprinting" Helps Make Great Grapes
Tue, 26 Aug 2008 09:49:00 -0500
Genetic fingerprints, now being developed for the 2,800 wild, rare and domesticated grapes in ARS's northern California genebank, will help grape breeders pinpoint unusual characteristics. Click the image for more information about it. Autumn King seedless grapes: Big and luscious!   Thomcord grape: Flavorful, attractive—and seedless!   Sweet Scarlet grape: New variety readied for growers “Fingerprinting” Helps Make Great Grapes By Marcia Wood August 26, 2008 At about this time next year, nearly all of the 2,800 wild, rare and domesticated grapes in a unique northern California genebank will have had their "genetic profile" or “fingerprint” taken. These fingerprints may help grape breeders pinpoint plants in the collection that have unusual traits--ones that might appeal to shoppers in tomorrow's supermarkets. Other grapes might be ideal for scientists who are doing basic research. That’s according to Agricultural Research Service (ARS) plant geneticist Mallikarjuna Aradhya. He's heading the grape fingerprinting venture. The grape collection that Aradhya is fingerprinting encompasses vineyards and screened enclosures, called “screenhouses." It is part of what’s officially known as the ARS National Clonal Germplasm Repository for Tree Fruit and Nut Crops and Grapes, in Davis, Calif. To glean a distinctive genetic fingerprint of each member of the collection, Aradhya uses pieces of genetic material--or DNA--known as microsatellite markers. Eight markers are all that are needed for a genetic fingerprint of more familiar grapes, like close relatives of those already used for making wine or raisins or for eating out-of-hand. But the lesser-known ones--wild grapes and some prized types from China, for instance--require twice as many markers for reliable identification. That’s due, in part, to the fact that the taxonomy, or relatedness of one kind of grape to another, is quite jumbled, Aradhya noted. He has already fingerprinted 1,100 better-known grapes and 300 wild specimens. ARS is a scientific research agency of the U.S. Department of Agriculture.

USDA - National Agricultural Statistics Service Reports

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