In its common modern meaning, a mule is the offspring of a male donkey and a female horse. Compare hinny – the offspring of a male horse and a female donkey. The term "mule" (Latin mulus) was formerly applied to the offspring of any two creatures of different species – in modern usage, a "hybrid". The mule, easier to breed and usually larger in size than a hinny, has monopolised the attention of breeders. The chromosome match-up more often occurs when the jack (male donkey) is the sire and the mare (female horse) is the dam. It has been known for people to let a stallion (male horse) run with a jenny (female donkey) for as long as six years before getting her pregnant. Mules are almost always sterile (see fertile mules below for rare cases), as almost all hinnies are. (see External links). The sterility is attributed to the different number of chromosomes the two species have: donkeys have 62 chromosomes, while horses have 64. Their offspring thus have 63 chromosomes which cannot evenly divide.

A female mule, called a "molly", has estrus cycles and can carry a fetus, as has occasionally happened naturally but also through embryo transfer. The difficulty is in getting the molly pregnant in the first place.

Mules are considered more intelligent than both horses and donkeys.

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USDA Agricultural Research Service

ARS Produces Online Databases for Maize, Blueberries
Thu, 07 Aug 2008 08:08:00 -0500
Read the magazine story to find out more. ARS has created a publically available online genomic databases for blueberries and maize. Click the image for more information about it. Click the image for more information about it. State-of-the-art technology being applied to agricultural problems   A website ripe with data from ARS tomato studies   Revolutionizing turkey production with functional genomics ARS Produces Online Databases for Maize, Blueberries By Rosalie Marion Bliss August 7, 2008 Agricultural Research Service (ARS) scientists and colleagues have produced several online bioinformatics resources to support plant breeders and other scientists who research genetic traits among plant species. Bioinformatics is a field of science in which biology, computer science and information technology merge to form a single discipline. ARS investigators Doreen Ware, Edward Buckler, Michael McMullen, James Holland and university colleagues produced Panzea, an online bioinformatics resource on maize diversity with support from the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) and the National Science Foundation. Buckler and Ware are with ARS units in Ithaca, N.Y; McMullen in Columbia, Mo.; and Holland in Raleigh, N.C. Panzea contains millions of data points, providing access to genotype, phenotype and polymorphism data. Maize is a diverse crop species. On average, two different maize lines can be as genetically different as a human and a chimpanzee. A key aspect of the program is identifying chromosomal regions at which exotic maize lines possess genes with agronomic effects superior to those carried in Corn Belt lines. Panzea is available at: http://www.panzea.org. Another genomics database supports blueberry breeders who are generating plants that can adapt to a wide range of soils, climates and harvests. Blueberry is now a major berry crop and sales are rising quickly, according to industry experts. ARS plant geneticist Jeannine Rowland and colleagues produced the online blueberry genomics database, which is called the BBGD. The researchers are with the ARS Genetic Improvement of Fruits and Vegetables Laboratory in Beltsville, Md. They have identified gene sequences and molecular markers of horticultural significance in blueberry. That information is available through the BBGD for marker-assisted breeding and transformation. The database provides key information on gene expression related to a cultivar's ability to acclimate and survive during cold winters--a critical step to good summer yields. The BBGD is available at: http://psi081.ba.ars.usda.gov/bbgd/index.htm. Read more about this research in the August 2008 issue of Agricultural Research magazine. ARS is a scientific research agency of the USDA.
Wheat Genotyping: An Invaluable Service
Wed, 06 Aug 2008 08:13:00 -0500
Read the magazine story to find out more. New advances in the field of genomics are speeding scientists' identification of new traits to keep wheat healthy and productive in the face of diseases such as scab and other problems. Click the image for more information about it. Fighting a worldwide wheat threat   New durum wheat line resists scab disease   Hessian fly-resistant wheat germplasm available Wheat Genotyping: An Invaluable Service By Jan Suzskiw August 6, 2008 Helping plant breeders develop new wheat varieties with improved disease resistance, stress tolerance and other desirable traits is the goal of Agricultural Research Service (ARS) scientists based at four regional small-grains genotyping centers. Ranked third behind corn and soybeans in planted acreage and gross receipts, wheat is a major crop used in everything from flour and baked goods to crackers and pancakes. Yet insects and diseases pose a constant threat to the crop's productivity. Fortunately, new advances in the field of genomics are speeding scientists' identification of new traits to keep wheat healthy and productive in the face of these and other threats. For example, at the ARS Western Regional Small Grains Genotyping Laboratory in Pullman, Wash., geneticist Deven See leads a team tasked with furnishing wheat and barley breeders in five states--Washington, Oregon, California, Idaho and Montana--with genetic profiles of their germplasm materials. See estimates at least 60 percent of genotyping requests received from breeders there are for genes conferring resistance to a fungal disease called stripe rust. In Pacific Northwest production areas, stripe rust can inflict yield losses of up to 40 percent. Conventional methods of screening germplasm for resistance genes can take months to complete. Now, thanks to the genotypic services offered by See's group, coupled with the use of a technique called marker-assisted selection, breeders can identify resistant germplasm within a few days. At the ARS Cereal Crops Research Unit in Fargo, N.D., molecular geneticist Shiaoman Chao is building a database to store genotypic information generated at her location as well as Pullman and two other regional small-grain genotyping centers: the ARS Plant Science Research Unit in Raleigh, N.C., and the ARS Plant Science and Entomology Research Unit in Manhattan, Kan. Among their accomplishments, Chao and colleagues have genotyped 400 single nucleotide polymorphism DNA sequence variations in a selection of elite U.S. wheat cultivars that can be linked to desirable traits in the crop, expediting breeding efforts. Read more about the research in the August 2008 issue of Agricultural Research magazine. ARS is a scientific research agency of the U.S. Department of Agriculture.
Here's the Beef: Identifying DNA Markers and Traits
Tue, 05 Aug 2008 09:39:00 -0500
Read the magazine story to find out more. A new genomics tool—the 50k SNP BeadChip—makes it easier for scientists to transfer genetic information for use by the beef and dairy cattle industries. Click the image for more information about it. Identifying variation in the U.S. bovine prion gene   DNA fingerprinting promotes health and safety   Genetic tests beef up cattle breeding Here's the Beef: Identifying DNA Markers and Traits By Laura McGinnis August 5, 2008 Agricultural Research Service (ARS) scientists are using a new tool to find relationships between DNA markers and economically significant traits in cattle. The new tool, called the Illumina BovineSNP50 BeadChip, is a glass slide containing thousands of DNA markers, some of which may be associated with important production traits such as disease resistance. ARS researchers at the Roman L. Hruska U.S. Meat Animal Research Center (USMARC) in Clay Center, Neb., and the National Animal Disease Center in Ames, Iowa, are using the BeadChip to research bovine respiratory disease (BRD). Cattle can carry BRD without showing any symptoms, so infected animals can be difficult to identify. Tools like the BeadChip may facilitate identification of genetic markers for traits like BRD resistance. Another project employing the BeadChip technology is a USMARC investigation into the influence of genetics on feed efficiency. Research leader Cal Ferrell, geneticist Mark Allan and their colleagues are identifying phenotypes--visible characteristics--that relate to post-weaning feed efficiency and lifetime productivity in beef cattle. The researchers are also using the BeadChip to find relationships between DNA markers and phenotypes that can be used to enhance genetic selection and management in beef cattle. These studies could eventually allow researchers to develop tools that can be used to guide animal breeding selection and management decisions. The BeadChip has research applications for both beef and dairy cattle. Design of the BeadChip was led by ARS researchers at Beltsville, Md., in collaboration with ARS scientists at Clay Center and colleagues from the University of Missouri and the University of Alberta in Canada. The chip is being used at all those locations and many others--in at least 23 locations in 11 countries. ARS is a scientific research agency of the U.S. Department of Agriculture.

USDA - National Agricultural Statistics Service Reports

Farm Production Expenditures 2007 Summary
U.S. Farm Production Expenditures Up 9.3 Percent in 2007....

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